Commercial Law

Commercial Law is a branch of law that governs legal relationships and transactions in the business context. It covers various aspects of business operations, including the buying and selling of goods and services, agency relationships, credit and security, contract terms, and international sales. Here are the topics you will learn in this module.

Introduction
This topic provides an introduction to commercial law, discussing its purpose, scope, and importance in regulating business activities. It covers the legal framework that governs commercial transactions and relationships.

Personal Property
Personal property refers to movable assets that are not classified as real estate. This topic delves into the legal aspects of personal property, including ownership, transfer, and protection. It covers issues such as ownership rights, registration, and security interests in personal property.

Agency
Agency is a legal relationship where one party (the agent) acts on behalf of another party (the principal). This topic explores the nature of agency relationships, the authority of agents, and the rights and obligations of principals and agents in conducting business transactions.

Authority of Agents
The authority of agents refers to the extent to which an agent can legally bind the principal in business transactions. This topic examines the different types of authority, including actual authority (express or implied) and apparent authority. It also discusses the consequences of exceeding or abusing authority.

Types of Agents
This topic categorises agents based on their relationship with the principal and their scope of authority. It discusses general agents who represent the principal in a broad range of matters, special agents who are appointed for specific tasks, and sub-agents who act on behalf of another agent.

Ratification
Ratification occurs when a principal accepts and approves an act performed by an agent that was initially unauthorised or not expressly authorised. This topic explores the legal consequences of ratification and its implications for the validity of the transaction.

Agency Relationships
This topic delves into the legal rights, duties, and obligations of both the principal and the agent in an agency relationship. It covers fiduciary duties, duty of loyalty, duty of care, and the termination of agency relationships.

Credit and Security
Credit and security deal with the legal aspects of financing and collateral. This topic covers the creation and enforcement of security interests, such as mortgages, pledges, liens, and guarantees. It also addresses issues related to priority of security interests and remedies in case of default.

Assignment and Set-off
Assignment refers to the transfer of contractual rights or obligations from one party to another. This topic examines the legal requirements and implications of assignment. Set-off, on the other hand, allows parties to offset mutual debts against each other. It discusses the conditions and consequences of set-off.

Classification of Goods
Goods can be classified based on their nature, quality, and purpose. This classification may affect their sale, transportation, and liability. This topic explores the different categories of goods, such as perishable goods, fungible goods, and consumer goods, and the legal implications associated with each category.

Sale of Goods
The sale of goods is a fundamental aspect of commercial law. This topic delves into the legal principles and regulations governing the sale and purchase of goods. It covers issues such as the formation of contracts, warranties, transfer of property, risk of loss, and remedies for breach of contract.

Sale of Services
This topic focuses on the legal aspects of service contracts. It examines the obligations of service providers, the rights of consumers, warranties, and remedies for inadequate services. It covers areas such as professional services, construction contracts, and service level agreements.

Passing of Property
Passing of property refers to the transfer of ownership rights from the seller to the buyer. This topic discusses the rules and principles governing the passing of property in the sale of goods, including the identification of goods, delivery, and the effect of conditions and reservations.

Passing of Risk
The passing of risk determines when the responsibility for loss or damage to goods shifts from the buyer to the seller. This topic explores the legal rules and principles that govern the passing of risk in commercial transactions. It covers factors such as delivery, transportation, insurance, and the allocation of risk between the parties.

Demo Dat Rule
The Demo Dat Rule, also known as the "buyer beware" rule, addresses the buyer's responsibility to examine and inspect goods before purchase. This topic explains the application of the Demo Dat Rule in commercial transactions and its implications for buyer protection and remedies in case of defects or misrepresentation.

Contract Terms
Contract terms refer to the rights, obligations, and conditions agreed upon by the parties in a contract. This topic discusses the legal principles related to contract terms, including express terms, implied terms, conditions, warranties, and exclusion clauses. It covers the interpretation and enforceability of contract terms.

Delivery and Payment
This topic focuses on the legal aspects of delivery and payment in commercial transactions. It examines the obligations and methods of delivery, including the time, place, and manner of delivery. It also covers payment terms, methods of payment, and the consequences of non-payment.

Terms Implied by SGA
The Sale of Goods Act (SGA) provides certain terms that are automatically implied into contracts for the sale of goods. This topic explores the implied terms under the SGA, such as the seller's right to sell, the goods' conformity with description, satisfactory quality, and fitness for purpose.

Terms Implied by CRA
The Consumer Rights Act (CRA) contains specific terms that are implied into contracts between traders and consumers. This topic discusses the implied terms under the CRA, including the quality, fitness for purpose, and conformity of goods and services.

Remedies for Buyers
When there is a breach of contract by the seller, the buyer is entitled to certain remedies. This topic explores the remedies available to buyers, such as damages, specific performance, rejection of goods, and the right to claim for non-conforming goods.

Remedies for Sellers
Similarly, when there is a breach of contract by the buyer, the seller has certain remedies at their disposal. This topic examines the remedies available to sellers, including damages, specific performance, and the right to resell the goods.

International Sales
International sales refer to commercial transactions involving buyers and sellers from different countries. This topic discusses the legal aspects of international sales, including the applicable law, jurisdiction, choice of forum, and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG).

FOB Contracts
FOB stands for "Free on Board" and is a common type of international sales contract. This topic explains the features and legal implications of FOB contracts, including the transfer of risk, delivery obligations, and the allocation of costs between the parties.

CIF Contracts
CIF stands for "Cost, Insurance, and Freight" and is another type of international sales contract. This topic explores the characteristics and legal implications of CIF contracts, including the obligations of the seller and buyer regarding cost, insurance, and freight.

Bill of Exchange
A bill of exchange is a negotiable instrument that functions as a written order to pay a specified amount of money to a specific person or entity. This topic examines the legal framework surrounding bills of exchange, including their creation, negotiation, endorsement, and liability of parties involved.

Banking
This topic focuses on the legal aspects of banking in commercial transactions. It covers issues such as bank accounts, payment systems, letters of credit, guarantees, and the rights and liabilities of banks and customers.

Documentary Credit
Documentary credits, also known as letters of credit, are commonly used in international trade transactions. This topic explains the concept of documentary credits, their types, parties involved, and their legal implications. It covers topics such as the issuance and terms of documentary credits, the role of banks as intermediaries, the documents required for payment, and the rights and obligations of the parties involved.

Understanding these topics is crucial for businesses and individuals engaged in commercial activities to ensure compliance with legal requirements, protect their rights, and effectively resolve disputes. By comprehending the intricacies of Commercial Law, you can navigate the complexities of commercial transactions with greater confidence and make informed decisions to safeguard their interests.