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Legal Blog

April 01, 2023

Will AI Replace Lawyers One Day?

While AI has the potential to automate some of the tasks currently performed by lawyers, it is unlikely to fully replace lawyers in the near future. AI technology is already being used to assist lawyers with tasks such as document review, legal resea...

April 01, 2023

Intent vs Intention

In criminal law, intention and intent are often used interchangeably to refer to the mental state or mens rea of a person while committing a crime. Both terms refer to the state of mind where a person acts with the purpose or knowledge of causing a p...

April 01, 2023

Intention vs Recklessness vs Negligence

In criminal law, mens rea refers to the mental state or intent of a person while committing a crime. There are different levels of mens rea that can be used to establish criminal liability, including intention, negligence, and recklessness.Intention ...

April 01, 2023

Intention as Mens Rea

In criminal law, intention is a mental state or mens rea that refers to the state of mind where a person acts with the purpose or knowledge of causing a particular result. Intention is the highest level of mens rea and is required for crimes such as ...

April 01, 2023

Negligence as Mens Rea

In criminal law, mens rea refers to the mental state or intent of a person while committing a crime. Negligence is one of the mens rea that can be used to establish criminal liability.Negligence refers to the failure to exercise reasonable care in on...

April 01, 2023

Recklessness as Mens Rea

In criminal law, mens rea refers to the mental state or intent of a person while committing a crime. Recklessness is one of the mens rea that is commonly used in criminal cases.Recklessness refers to the state of mind where a person is aware of the r...

March 31, 2023

What is Basic Intent?

Basic intent in criminal law refers to the mental state or level of intent or knowledge that a person has when they commit a crime. It is a broad term that covers a range of mental states to commit a crime including a general intention, recklessness ...

March 31, 2023

What is Ulterior Intent?

Ulterior intent is an additional aspect to the mens rea element of a crime that represents intention to create some additional effect beyond intent or recklessness to commit the crime.It is not as common as basic intent or specific intent in criminal...

March 31, 2023

What is Specific Intent?

Specific intent in criminal law refers to the mental state or level of awareness that a person has when they commit a criminal act with the intention of achieving a particular outcome or result beyond just the act itself. This means that the person n...

March 30, 2023

Basic Intent vs Specific Intent vs Ulterior Intent

In criminal law, basic intent, specific intent, and ulterior intent are often used to describe different levels of mental state required to prove certain crimes. Here's a breakdown of what each term means:Basic intent refers to the general intention,...

March 28, 2023

Basic Intent Offence

In English criminal law, a basic intent offence is an offence that requires the prosecution to prove that the defendant intended to commit the act that led to the offence, but not necessarily the specific outcome or consequence of that act. Basic int...

March 28, 2023

Grievous Bodily Harm vs Actual Bodily Harm

In English criminal law, grievous bodily harm (GBH) and actual bodily harm (ABH) are both offences against the person, but they differ in terms of the level of harm caused and the level of intent required to commit the offence. GBH is the more seriou...

March 28, 2023

Specific Intent Offence

In English criminal law, a specific intent offence is an offence in which the prosecution must prove that the defendant had a specific intention or purpose when committing the actus reus (the guilty act) of the offence. This means that the defendant ...

March 28, 2023

Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent

Causing grievous bodily harm (GBH) with intent is a criminal offence in English law that is defined under section 18 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. It is considered one of the most serious violent offences and can result in significant ...

March 28, 2023

Wounding with Intent

Wounding with intent is a criminal offence in English law that is defined under section 18 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. It is considered one of the most serious violent offences and can result in significant punishment, including life...

March 28, 2023

Actual Bodily Harm

In English criminal law, actual bodily harm (ABH) is a criminal offence that is defined under section 47 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. It is considered a less serious offence compared to grievous bodily harm (GBH), but it can still res...

March 28, 2023

Grievous Bodily Harm

In English criminal law, grievous bodily harm (GBH) is a serious offence that is defined under section 18 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. It is considered as one of the most serious violent offences and can result in severe punishment, i...

March 27, 2023

Ex Turpi Causa

Ex turpi causa is a Latin legal term that means "from a dishonorable cause". It refers to the legal principle that a person cannot benefit from his or her own wrongful conduct or a transaction that is illegal, immoral, or against public polic...

March 26, 2023

Pure Economic Loss

Pure economic loss refers to financial loss that is not accompanied by any physical damage or personal injury. In other words, it is an economic loss that is suffered by a person or business as a result of another party's negligence, but where there ...

March 26, 2023

Lack of Contractual Capacity

In contract law, there are certain requirements that must be met for a contract to be considered valid. One of those requirements is that the parties to the contract must have the contractual capacity to enter into the agreement.Contractual capacity ...

March 25, 2023

What is Misrepresentation?

Misrepresentation in contract law is a false statement of fact made by one party to another during the course of negotiations which induces the other party to enter into a contract. The false statement can be made intentionally or unintentionally, bu...

March 24, 2023

Involuntary Manslaughter

Involuntary manslaughter is a criminal offence that involves the unintentional killing of another person, but with some degree of culpable negligence or recklessness on the part of the offender. Involuntary manslaughter is considered less serious tha...

March 24, 2023

Voluntary Manslaughter

Voluntary manslaughter is a type of criminal offence that involves the intentional killing of another person, but with mitigating circumstances that reduce the culpability of the offender. It is generally considered to be a less serious crime than mu...

March 24, 2023

What Is Manslaughter?

Manslaughter is a criminal offence that involves the killing of another person without the intention to cause death or serious harm. It is a less severe offence than murder, which involves an intention to cause death or serious harm. There are two ty...

March 23, 2023

Negative Defences

In criminal law, negative defences, also known as general defences, are legal defences in which the defendant denies the allegations made against them. The burden of proof remains with the prosecution to prove their case beyond a reasonable doubt. He...

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Case Law

Ivey v Genting Casinos 2017 | Criminal Law

Ivey v Genting Casinos (UK) Ltd t/a Crockfords [2017] UKSC 67 is a landmark case in English contract law and gambling law that addressed the concept of dishonesty in the context of cheating at gambling. The case involved a professional gambler, Mr Iv...

R v Ghosh 1982 | Criminal Law

R v Ghosh [1982] EWCA Crim 2 is a landmark case in English criminal law that established a two-limb test for assessing dishonesty in cases of theft and other dishonest offences. The case involved an NHS surgeon, Dr Ghosh, who had fraudulently claimed...

Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire 1987 | Tort Law

Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1987] UKHL 12, [1989] AC 53 was a significant case in English tort law that established the concept of a duty of care in relation to the police's duty to protect the public from harm caused by third parties. ...

Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police 2018 | Tort Law

Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police [2018] UKSC 4 is a landmark case in English tort law that deals with the issue of whether a duty of care exists in situations involving the police and members of the public. The case involved an eld...

Barrett v London Borough of Enfield 1999 | Tort Law

Barrett v London Borough of Enfield [1999] UKHL 2 is a landmark case in English law that dealt with the issue of local authority liability for the care of children in their care. The case involved a man who had spent his childhood in foster care and ...

Murphy v Brentwood District Council 1991 | Tort Loss

Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1991] UKHL 2, [1991] 1 AC 398 was a judicial decision of the House of Lords in relation to recovery for pure economic loss in tort. The court overruled the decision Anns v Merton London Borough Council with respec...

Anns v Merton LBC 1978 | Tort Law

Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1977] UKHL 4, [1978] AC 728 is a landmark case in English tort law that established a broad test for determining the existence of a duty of care in the tort of negligence called the Anns test (also known as a two...

Spartan Steel v Martin 1973 | Tort Law

Spartan Steel & Alloys Ltd v Martin & Co (Contractors) Ltd [1973] QB 27 is a well-known English Court of Appeal case concerning the recovery of pure economic loss in negligence. The case involved Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd (Spartan), which ...

Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC 1996 | Trusts Law

Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC [1996] UKHL 12, [1996] AC 669 is a leading English trusts law concerning the circumstances under which a resulting trust arises. The House of Lords ruled that a resulting trust must be intended or ...

Currie v Misa 1875 | Contract Law

Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 153; (1875–76) LR 1 App Cas 554 is a landmark case in English contract law that established the principle of consideration. The case was heard in the Exchequer Chamber in 1875 and later appealed to the House of Lords in ...

Chan Wing-siu v The Queen | Criminal Law

Chan Wing-siu v The Queen 1985 | Criminal Law

Chan Wing-siu v The Queen [1985] AC 168 was a landmark case in Hong Kong that dealt with the doctrine of joint enterprise and the mens rea required for conviction under the principle of parasitic accessory liability. In this case, the appellants, alo...

R v Jogee 2016 | Criminal Law

R v Jogee [2016] UKSC 8 is a landmark case in the UK which changed the law on joint enterprise, also known as common purpose. Joint enterprise is a legal doctrine that allows multiple defendants to be convicted of a crime if they were all involved in...

Oxley v Hiscock 2004 | Land Law

Oxley v Hiscock [2004] EWCA Civ 546 is a case in English property law which deals with the issue of how to determine the beneficial interests of cohabiting parties in a property when there is no express agreement. Mr Hiscock and Ms Oxley were an unma...

Lloyds Bank plc v Rosset 1990 | Land Law

Lloyds Bank plc v Rosset [1990] UKHL 14 is a landmark case in English property law which dealt with the issue of beneficial ownership of a property in the context of a relationship breakdown where the claimant is not a legal owner of the property but...

McGhee v National Coal Board | Tort Law

McGhee v National Coal Board [1972] UKHL 7 is a landmark case in the law of negligence. The House of Lords held that where a breach of duty has a material effect on the likelihood of injury then the subsequent injury will be said to have been caused ...

Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services | Tort Law

Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services [2003] 1 AC 32 is a landmark case in English tort law that dealt with the issue of causation in cases of mesothelioma, a type of cancer caused by exposure to asbestos. It affirmed the alternative test of "materi...

Berezovsky v Michaels 2000 | Tort Law

Berezovsky v Michaels [2000] UKHL 25, [2000] 2 All ER 986, [2000] 1 WLR 1004 is an English libel case in which the House of Lords allowed Boris Berezovsky and Nikolai Glushkov to sue Forbes (via editor James Michaels) for libel in UK courts, despite ...

Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex Ltd 1987 | Conflict of Laws

Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex Ltd [1987] AC 460 is a leading case in English law on the issue of forum non conveniens. The term "forum non conveniens" refers to the discretion of a court to refuse to hear a case if it is not the most appropriate ...

Spycatcher Cases | Conflict of Laws

The "Spycatcher cases" refer to a series of legal battles fought in the 1980s between the British government and Peter Wright, a former British intelligence officer, over the publication of Wright's book, "Spycatcher", including Attorney-General (UK)...

Hadley & Anor v Baxendale & Ors 1854 | Contract Law

Hadley & Anor v Baxendale & Ors is a landmark case in English contract law that established the principle of consequential damages, also known as special damages.In 1854, the crankshaft of the flour mill broke, causing the mill to shut down. ...

Banco de Vizcaya v Don Alfonso de Borbon y Austria 1935 | Conflict of Laws

Banco de Vizcaya v Don Alfonso de Borbon y Austria is a notable case in the field of international law, specifically in relation to the doctrine of state immunity.The case was heard by the House of Lords in 1935, and it concerned a claim made by the ...

Kuwait Airways v Iraq Airways 2002 | Conflict of Laws

Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraq Airways Co (Nos. 4 and 5) [2002] 2 AC 883 is a landmark case in international law, which dealt with the issue of state immunity and the scope of a state's immunity from legal proceedings in foreign courts. The case i...

Re Cohn 1945 | Conflict of Laws

Re Cohn [1945] Ch5 is a case that involved conflict of law in relation to the administration of estates of a person who had died intestate.A mother and a daughter who were German nationals and domiciled in Germany at all times were killed in an air r...

R v G and another 2003 | Criminal Law

R v G and another [2003] UKHL 50 overruled the Caldwell test of recklessness and established the current test of recklessness.Two children, aged 11 and 12, lit newspapers outside a co-op shop and then threw them under a wheelie bin. They then left wi...

MPC v Caldwell 1982 | Criminal Law

Metropolitan Police Commissioner v Caldwell [1982] AC 341 is an English criminal law case that established the Caldwell test of recklessness. Caldwell had been working at a hotel and had a grudge against his employer. One night after consuming a larg...

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Bar Exams Worldwide

March 19, 2023

California Bar Exam

The California Bar Exam is a test that individuals must pass in order to become licensed to practise law in the state of California. The exam is administered by the State Bar of California and consists of both a written portion and a multiple-choice ...

All India Bar Examination (AIBE) Syllabus 2023

March 18, 2023

All India Bar Exam (AIBE) Syllabus 2023

The All India Bar Exam (AIBE) is a national level exam conducted by the Bar Council of India (BCI) for candidates who have completed their law degrees and wish to practice law in India. The AIBE consists of 100 multiple-choice questions testing ...

March 18, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in Pakistan?

Becoming a lawyer in Pakistan requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training and passing the bar exam. The process of becoming a lawyer in Pakistan typically takes several years to complete, and you will need to follow these sp...

March 17, 2023

All India Bar Exam

The All India Bar Exam (AIBE) is a national-level examination that is conducted by the Bar Council of India (BCI) to assess the knowledge and skills of law graduates who want to practice law in India. The AIBE is mandatory for all law graduates who w...

March 17, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in India?

Becoming a lawyer in India requires a combination of academic qualifications and passing the bar exam. The process of becoming a lawyer typically takes several years to complete, and you will need to follow these specific steps: Complete secondary ed...

March 15, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in California?

California is one of the most popular destinations for foreign and domestic lawyers to practise law there. Each years, over 16,000 candidates sit the California Bar Exam, but sadly it is one of the hardest bar exams with one of the lowest pass rates ...

March 15, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in New Zealand?

Becoming a lawyer in New Zealand requires a combination of academic qualifications and practical training. The process of becoming a lawyer typically takes several years to complete, and you will need to follow these specific steps: Complete a law de...

March 15, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in Canada?

Becoming a lawyer in Canada requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and passing the bar exam. The process of becoming a lawyer typically takes several years to complete, and you will need to follow these specific steps:...

March 14, 2023

New York Law Course

The New York Law Course (NYLC) is a requirement for admission to the New York State Bar. It is an online course that covers New York-specific legal topics, including ethics, professionalism, and skills needed for practicing law in New York. The NYLC ...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in New York?

Becoming a lawyer in New York requires a combination of academic qualifications, passing the bar exam, and satisfying some additional requirements. The process of becoming a lawyer typically takes several years to complete the following steps: Earn a...

March 14, 2023

New York Law Exam

The New York Law Exam (NYLE) is a two-hour online exam administered by the New York State Board of Law Examiners. The exam is designed to test a candidate's knowledge of New York law and procedure, which is a requirement for admission to the bar in t...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Solicitor in England and Wales?

Becoming a solicitor in England and Wales requires a combination of academic qualifications, passing qualifying exams and gaining qualified work experience. The profession is regulated by the Solicitors Regulatory Authority, and the process of becomi...

How to Become ax Barrister in England and Wales?

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Barrister in England and Wales?

Becoming a barrister in England and Wales requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and pupillage. The profession is regulated by the General Council of the Bar, and the process of becoming a barrister typically takes sev...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in Australia?

Becoming a lawyer in Australia requires a combination of academic qualifications and practical training. To become a lawyer in Australia, you will need to follow these specific steps: Obtain a law degree: You will need to complete a Bachelor of Laws ...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in Malaysia?

Becoming a lawyer in Malaysia requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and passing the bar exam. The profession is regulated by the Malaysia Bar, and the process of becoming a lawyer typically takes several years to comp...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Lawyer in Singapore?

Becoming a lawyer in Singapore requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and passing the bar exams. The profession is regulated by the Legal Services Regulatory Authority, and the process of becoming a lawyer typically ta...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Barrister in Hong Kong?

Becoming a solicitor in Hong Kong requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and passing qualifying exams. The profession is regulated by the Hong Kong Bar Association, and the process of becoming a barrister typically tak...

March 14, 2023

How to Become a Solicitor in Hong Kong?

Becoming a solicitor in Hong Kong requires a combination of academic qualifications, practical training, and passing qualifying exams. The profession is regulated by the Law Society of Hong Kong, and the process of becoming a solicitor typically take...

March 13, 2023

American Bar Association Model Rules of Professional Conduct

The American Bar Association Model Rules of Professional Conduct are a set of ethical guidelines that govern the professional conduct of lawyers in the United States. The Model Rules were first adopted in 1983 and have been revised several times sinc...

Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination MPRE

March 13, 2023

Multistate Professional Responsibility Exam | United States

The Multistate Professional Responsibility Exam (MPRE) is an exam administered by the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) that measures a candidate's knowledge and understanding of the professional conduct rules that govern lawyers' ethical b...

March 13, 2023

National Conference of Bar Examiners | United States

The National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) is a non-profit organisation that develops and administers standardised tests for bar admission in the United States. The NCBE was founded in 1931 and is based in Madison, Wisconsin.The NCBE is responsi...

March 13, 2023

Multistate Bar Exam | United States

The Multistate Bar Exam (MBE) is a standardised, multiple-choice test that is administered as part of the bar exam in the United States. The MBE is developed and administered by the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE), and is used by most sta...

March 13, 2023

Multistate Performance Test | United States

The Multistate Performance Test (MPT) is a component of the bar examination in the United States. The MPT is designed to test an individual's ability to use lawyering skills to analyse a realistic legal problem and to perform specific tasks that are ...

March 13, 2023

Multistate Essay Exam | United States

The Multistate Essay Exam (MEE) is a component of the bar exam administered in certain states in the United States. The MEE is designed to test an individual's ability to analyse legal issues and communicate effectively in writing.The MEE is a six-qu...

March 13, 2023

Uniform Bar Exam | United States

The Uniform Bar Exam (UBE) is a standardised test that is used to assess whether a candidate is qualified to practise law in a particular jurisdiction. It is administered by the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) and is accepted in over 30 j...

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Legal English

March 27, 2023

Transition vs Conjunction

In grammar, a transition is a word or phrase that connects one idea or sentence to another. It helps to create coherence and flow in writing, making it easier for readers to understand the relationship between different ideas. Examples of transition ...

March 22, 2023

Drafting Particulars of Claim for SQE

Particulars of claim are a legal document that sets out the factual and legal basis of a party's claim in a civil lawsuit. Candidates taking the SQE are often required to draft this kind of document as part of the legal drafting assessment. The purpo...

March 21, 2023

Passive Voice in Legal Writing

In legal writing, the passive voice can serve several important functions:Emphasising objectivityThe passive voice can be used to create an objective tone by distancing the writer from the action described. This can be particularly useful in legal wr...

March 21, 2023

Tips for Effective Legal Writing

Legal writing is a type of writing used by lawyers, judges, and other legal professionals to communicate legal information and arguments to others. It is typically more formal and technical than other types of writing, and may sometimes involves comp...

March 21, 2023

Legal Drafting in SQE

Legal drafting is an important skill that is tested in the solicitors qualifying exam (SQE). It assesses the ability of candidates to draft or edit legal documents in a clear, concise, and logical manner.The assessment is marked by trained solicitors...

March 21, 2023

What is Legal Drafting?

Legal drafting is the process of writing legal documents, such as contracts, agreements, wills, deeds, and pleadings, in a clear, concise, and legally accurate manner. Legal drafting requires a thorough understanding of the relevant laws, regulations...

March 21, 2023

Features of Legal English

Legal English has several unique features that set it apart from standard English. Some of the most important features of legal English include: Use of technical terminology: Legal English incorporates a significant amount of technical terminology th...

November 19, 2022

Legal English Doesn't Have to Be Hard

Legal English is a specialised variety of the English language used in legal writing. It is formal English which differs from the ordinary use in terms of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and semantics. However, it does not have to be hard, and in fac...

November 19, 2022

How to Draft Legal Documents?

Legal drafting is a writing process that manipulates facts to achieve a predictable and planned legal result your client desires. Lawyers are often required to prepare documents that make the law operate in such a manner as to accomplish the client’s...

August 27, 2022

Writing Advice for Law Students

The writing advice for law exams and law assignments is the same, but its application varies in these two situations. Many of the following pieces of advice may be forgiven under exam conditions but are non-negotiable in assessed coursework. Anyway, ...

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Law Exam Skills

March 21, 2023

Essay Directive Words: The Secret to First-Class Essays

Essay question words, also known as directive words, are the specific words or phrases used in an essay question that tell the writer what approach they should take when answering the question. These words help to guide the writer and ensure that the...

March 21, 2023

How to Excel at Law Exams?

Law exams can be challenging, but with proper preparation and effective exam-taking strategies, you can improve your skills and increase your chances of success. Here are some tips for improving your skills for a law exam:Review the syllabus and unde...

January 22, 2023

Useful Phrases for Problem Questions

Here are some key phrases that can help your law essay stand out from others. This question deals with … The principal issue raised by this question … The main issue is whether … The issues to be considered are … The problem also raises the issue of ...

January 22, 2023

Types of Law Essays

A law essay is an academic paper written by a law student that explores and analyses legal issues, principles, and theories. Law essays generally fall into the following three categories:Legal Theory: This type of essay focuses on exploring why the l...

January 22, 2023

What to Do and Avoid in Law Essays?

Do not use casual or informal language. Keeping it simple does not mean informality; your style should remain academic and not include slang, abbreviations or colloquialisms, unless they are direct, properly referenced quotes. Always use full sentenc...

How to Avoid Plagiarism in Open Book Exam Paraphrasing Technique

January 12, 2023

How to Avoid Plagiarism in Open Book Exams

Open book exams can be a trap for incautious students. The good thing about open book exams is that you can refer to anything you get hold of while taking the exam. However, this is also where problems lie. You should not copy reference materials ver...

August 27, 2022

Golden Rules for Law Exams

1. Prepare thoroughly. In particular, practise doing the past examination questions. 2. Read the examination paper carefully. Choose the four questions that you want to answer, and make a rough allocation of time. 3. Make rough notes on the answers t...

August 27, 2022

How to Apply Case Law in Law Exams?

Don’t waste your time retelling the whole story or any part of it. You won’t get marks for doing this. You just need to state the principle or ruling of the case to support your point. Ideally, you should cite the whole case name, including the year,...

August 27, 2022

Wrong Way to Study Law

Your professors love to ask you to do all the readings and read all the cases. This is certainly the wrong way to study law. First, cases are very long and full of clumsy sentences badly written by judges who do not care about your understanding. Sec...

July 01, 2022

How to Understand Law Essay Questions?

The first step to a successful law essay is understanding the question. One of the most effective ways of breaking down the question is to identify the direction, content, and scope or limiting words. Critically anaylse the extent to which the tort o...

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